Urban Water Scarcity, Household Water Consumption, and Conservation Practices: Evidence from Shimla, India

Water scarcity has emerged as one of the most pressing environmental challenges worldwide, particularly in rapidly urbanizing regions where increasing demand places pressure on limited freshwater resources. Shimla, the capital city of Himachal Pradesh, India, frequently experiences seasonal water shortages due to limited water sources, infrastructure constraints, and rising population pressure. This study examines household water supply patterns, consumption trends, perceptions of water quality, and conservation practices across ten wards of Shimla. Primary data were collected from 100 households using a structured questionnaire and analysed using descriptive statistics, seasonal analysis, Spearman’s correlation, and regression techniques. The findings revealed that although all households had access to tap water, supply duration remained limited and seasonal shortages were widespread. Approximately 78% of respondents reported experiencing water shortages, particularly during the summer season, while 44% reported waterborne diseases. A significant positive correlation was found between family size and monthly water expenditure (p = 0.597, p < 0.01). Regression analysis further indicated that family size and household water consumption significantly influenced water expenditure. The results highlight the need for improved water infrastructure, effective monitoring of water quality, and wider adoption of water conservation practices such as rainwater harvesting. The study provides policy-relevant insights for improving urban water sustainability and equitable distribution in Shimla.