Assessment of Productivity, Economic Returns, and Carbon Sequestration Potential of Agroforestry Systems in the Kashmir Himalayas

Agroforestry is a traditional yet economically significant land-use system that has gained increasing importance in recent years, particularly under changing climatic conditions in the Kashmir Himalayas. A large proportion of the rural population in this region depends on agroforestry-based resources such as fuelwood, fodder, timber, and horticultural products for their livelihoods. Unlike conventional monocropping systems, agroforestry in Kashmir integrates trees with crops and/or livestock, providing multiple income streams and reducing economic risks associated with climate variability. Economically, agroforestry systems in Himalayan regions have demonstrated higher profitability compared to traditional farming systems. The net returns from different agroforestry practices vary widely depending on system composition, ranging from low-input subsistence models to highly productive commercial systems. Studies indicate that in the Himalayan region, agroforestry systems have been reported to generate annual net returns ranging from Rs. 5,000 to Rs. 3,00,000 ha⁻¹, with benefit–cost (B:C) ratios between 1.3 and 3.5, depending on species composition, management practices, and market accessibility. In the context of Kashmir, fruit-based agroforestry systems (particularly apple-based systems) contribute significantly to farm income and enhance economic resilience. Agroforestry enhances income stability by diversifying production, thereby reducing dependence on a single crop that may fail under erratic climatic conditions such as unseasonal rainfall, frost, or drought. Agroforestry has considerable potential for climate change mitigation through enhanced carbon sequestration, with several studies reporting 2–9 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ of carbon sequestration depending on species composition and agroecological conditions. The integration of tree components also improves soil fertility and moisture retention, indirectly lowering input costs and increasing long-term economic returns. In addition, emerging opportunities such as carbon credit markets provide an additional income source, as agroforestry systems sequester more carbon compared to conventional agriculture.