Spatial variability of saturated hydraulic conductivity in selected ponds of the Rohilkhand region, Uttar Pradesh, India

Saturated hydraulic conductivity (K_s) is a fundamental parameter controlling infiltration, seepage, and groundwater recharge in pond ecosystems. This study assessed the spatial variability of K_s in thirteen selected ponds of the Rohilkhand region, Uttar Pradesh, India, using the Inverse Auger Hole Method at three locations within each pond. Measured K_s values ranged from 0.06 to 7.55 cm h^-1, indicating substantial spatial variability, with the highest value recorded at Tumadiya pond and the lowest at Changgeri pond. Mean K_s values varied between 0.32 and 2.95 cm h^-1. Descriptive statistics revealed considerable heterogeneity in pond-bed hydraulic properties, while two-factor ANOVA without replication showed significant differences among sampling locations (p = 0.02) but non-significant differences among ponds (p = 0.13). Hydraulic conductivity decreased consistently from Location-1 to Locations-2 and 3, highlighting the influence of within-pond variability. These findings emphasize the importance of multi-location field measurements for reliable estimation of hydraulic properties and groundwater recharge assessment in alluvial pond ecosystems.