Mamata Patra

We all know very well that gender inequality is not biologically determined, rather, it is socially constructed. Gender acts as a division, as a difference in our society. In India, gender equality is seen in movements, in write-ups but not in reality. Even after seventy years of independence, gender inequality is widely recognized as the most prevalent form of social disadvantage in India. Women in India continue to suffer socially, economically as well as politically at different levels and in different forms. Comparison to men, women have lower status in the family, community and public spheres and have less political power, less economical autonomy, less earning power, and less access to the resources e.g. money, education, credit, training etc. Such disadvantage increases women's vulnerability to diverse forms of gender based violence to what has been termed a global epidemic of violence against women. Although the forms inequality takes the degree to which it is manifested vary from society to society, women's and men's responsibilities, opportunities and influence are unequal in all societies. Gender inequality have become a part of the mainstream discussion both form a legal perspective for ensuring equal rights legislation and in the sphere of public policies. Development in general and women development in particular is a very effective tool for enabling the system and the government to achieve its goal. Although the constitution of India has granted men and women equal rights and conveys a powerful mandate for equality and rights of women and provides for specific provisions for affirmative actions, it is an important way to empower women socially, economically, politically, and culturally. It is the step to improve of economic, social and political status of women, and it is the process of guarding them against all forms of violence. But practically it is still an illusion of reality. Discrimination against women is a pervasive and long-running phenomenon that characterises Indian society at every level. Gender disparity still remains. So this paper made a humble attempt to identify that, and to offer useful suggestions in the light of Gender Equality.

Women in Inequality Bedrock

The inequality between men and women is universal in almost all the societies and it is basically noticeable in our society also. Such type of inequality is found to be reflected in respect of, education, employment, social recognition etc. A common parameter, which is used to capture the degree of inequality between, sexes i.e. the gender discrimination. Gender inequality index is the highest for India among the countries listed in Table -1. It refers to health, education, economic and political inequalities between men and women. Gender inequalities, and its social causes, impact India's sex ratio, women's health over their lifetimes, their educational attainment, and economic conditions. It is a multifaceted issue that concerns men and women alike. In considering the dimensions of economic gender inequality, women still make less than men in the formal work sector, are more likely to live in poverty, are less likely to participate in the formal work sector and do a larger share of work in the household sector. The dimension of political gender inequality includes women's lower representation in elected office and lower representation in political and corporate appointments. Social gender inequality has numerous dimensions, some of which are less favourable to men while others are less favourable to women, men are more prone to violence, imprisonment and disability, while women are more likely to be the victims of domestic violence and sexual assault and in educational field women have lower attainment than men. Figure-1 represents India's Gender Gap Rank.

TABLE-1

Gender Inequality Index of Selected Countries

Countries	Gender Inequality Index
Argentina	0.381	74
Russian Fed	0.314	52
Brazil	0.441	85
China	0.202	37
Indonesia	0.500	103
South Africa	0.461	94
India	0.563	127

Source: HDR 2014 quoted in Economic Survey 2014–15

Figure 1:India's Gender Gap RankSource: The Global Gender Gap Report 2017, World Economic Forum

The preference for sons is so strong that it is manifested in terms of limiting the birth and survival of girl children. As a result, the sex ratio in India has become imbalanced. in 1951, 983 girls for every 1000 boys, it went down to 945 in 1991, then to 927 in 2001, and declined to 914 in 2011 - the worst since independence (Figure-2).

Figure 2:Imbalance in Child Sex Ratio in IndiaSource: Census of India, various years

Education is an essential source to increases women's abilities to deal with the problems of her life, her family, her society and nation. Education increases confidence in a woman. They have the attitude of gender parity among their children right from health care, nutrition, education and even career. The fruits of education are enjoyed not only by the woman concerned but it passes to her family in later life. But we find Illiteracy and ignorance are prevalent more in women than in men.Table-2 and Figure-3, represents that, the literacy percentage of women increased from 8.86 to 65.46, between 1951 -2011; on the other hand literacy percentage increased 24.9 to 82.14 percent. This table shows that, number of illiterate women is very high in comparison to men.

TABLE-2

Literacy rate of India

Year	Literacy rate Male	Literacy rate female	Total Percentage
1941	24.9	7.3	16.1
1951	27.16	8.86	18.33
1961	40.40	15.35	28.30
1971	45.96	21.97	34.45
1981	56.38	29.27	43.57
1991	64.13	39.29	52.21
2001	75.6	54.00	64.8
2011	82.14	65.48	74.64

Source: MHRD, Report various years

Figure 3:Literacy rate in IndiaSource: MHRD, Report various years

In addition to education, employment can also be an important source of empowerment for women. Employment, particularly for cash and in the formal sector, can empower women by providing financial independence, alternative sources of social identity, and exposure to power structures independent of kin networks (Dixon-Mueller, 1993).¹ By contrast, male gender roles are compatible with employment and men are typically expected to be employed and be an earning source for their families. Not surprisingly, like other field women also less impact in economical factor. Some common inequalities that take place in the workplace are the gender-based imbalances of individuals in power and command over the management of the organization. As compared to men, women are not able to move up into higher paid positions quickly. Some organizations have more inequality than others, and the extent to which it occurs can differ greatly. In the workplace the men usually hold the higher positions and the women often hold lower paid positions such as secretaries.

The Constitution of India guarantees both men and women are equal in the eyes of the laws and hence they have equal right (Article 14). Article 15 prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex and place of birth. Article 16, provides Equality of opportunity in matter to employment or appointment to any office under the state. Art. 23 and 24 Right against Exploitation is available for all. But, unfortunately, legal & political bias has prevented the law to attain the success of equality in gender. This is another reason for inequality. The number of women in political participation is abysmally low in both the parliament and the state legislature. Lack of space for women in these political institutions and decision making bodies has resulted in the perpetuation of inequalities and discrimination against women (Agarwal 2006).² We are talking about women empowerment, but how much you concern about their political participation compare to the male candidates was very less. In the first general election (1952) their strength was only 4.41%. In the next general election it reached to 5.4%. In the sixth Lok Sabha election (1977) women's representation was meagre 3.49%. In the ninth Lok Sabha election 1989, the number of women M.Ps drastically dropped to 5.22% from 8.09% in the previous Lok Sabha. The number of women M.Ps touch 9.02% in 1999 election, in 2009, 10.9% and in 2014 11.41%, the highest ever. But it had nothing much to do with effective political mobilization of women in the 2009 elections (Despande 2009).3Table-3 presented it. Table -4 shows that, in Rajya Sabha, proportion of female members started with 7.3 percent in 1952 and rose to 15.5 percent in 1991, but again declined to 6 percent in 1998 and rose to 10.3 percent in 2005, again slightly declining to 9.9 percent in 2006.

TABLE-3

Participation of Women in the Lok Sabha

Lok Sabha	Year of Election	No. of Total Seat	No. of Males	No. of females	Total percentage of Female members
I	1952	499	477	22	4.4
II	1957	500	473	27	5.4
III	1962	503	469	34	6.7
IV	1967	523	492	31	5.9
V	1971	521	499	22	4.2
VI	1977	544	525	19	3.5
VII	1980	544	516	28	5.1
VIII	1984	544	500	44	8.1
IX	1989	517	490	27	5.2
X	1991	544	505	39	7.1
XI	1996	543	504	39	7.1
XII	1998	543	500	43	7.9
XIII	1999	543	494	49	9.1
XIV	2004	543	499	44	8.1
XV	2009	543	484	59	10.9
XVI	2014	543	481	62	11.41

Source: Election Commission of India, Website (www.eci.gov.in)

TABLE-4

Participation of Women in the Rajya Sabha

Rajya Sabha	Year	Total No. of seats	Total No. of Male	Total No. of female	Percentages of Female
I	1952	219	203	16	7.3
II	1957	237	219	18	7.6
III	1962	238	220	18	7.6
IV	1967	240	220	20	8.3
V	1971	243	226	17	7.0
VI	8977	244	219	25	10.2
VII	1980	244	220	24	9.8
VIII	1984	244	216	28	11.4
IX	1989	245	221	24	9.8
X	1991	245	207	38	15.5
XI	1996	223	204	19	8.5
XII	1998	245	230	15	6.1
XIII	1999	245	226	19	7.7
XIV	2005	243	218	25	10.2
XV	2006	242	218	24	9.9
XVI	2009	245	223	22	8.97
XVII	2014	241	217	24	9.95

Sources: Election Commission of India (www.eci.gov.in)

Reasons of Disparities

Gender inequality create the inferior position of women and perpetuate systematic discrimination resulting in deep patterns of inequality, which reproduce through the norms of culture, tradition and custom, codified in laws and constitutions, and institutionalised in political, cultural and economic structures. Women exist not as an individual living in a vacuum but as an active member of the society. But, in the chaining circumstances, there are different factors which are responsible for effecting women to access higher social status.

Patriarchal society: Most of India, with some exceptions, has strong patriarchal customs, where men hold authority over female family members and inherit family property and title, in which men are the primary authority figures, occupying roles of political leadership, moral authority, control of property, and authority over women and children. This ‘inter-generational contract’ provides strong social and economic incentives for raising sons and disincentives for raising daughters.⁴

Preference for sons: It plays a central role in perpetuating gender inequality and ideas about gender-appropriate behaviour in India. Parental preference for sons, emanating from their importance as caregivers for parents in old age, is linked to poorer consequences for daughters.

Sex segregation: The impact of trafficking, sexual abuse and violence on girls influences their ability to complete their aims and objectives. Gender equalization has not occurred uniformly. Sex segregation is a major striking feature and a key reason for the ongoing social and economic inequality of women and men. A major question concerns the persistence of extreme gender differentiation even in the most economically and socially modern contexts. Research findings to date reveal a complex interplay between cultural beliefs, structural forms, and individual cognition in generating and maintaining sex segregation in the modern world.

Lack of interest and motivation: The emergence of women's studies and gender studies departments has created opportunities for sustained engagement of women with gender issues in education in many parts of the world. But with the exception of a few countries, India is one of them; this discipline is at a nascent stage.

House hold work: Working as maid servant and engaged in house hold work, household responsibilities, pressure to work, family honour and related issues inhibit girls and women from access and completing their aim.

Sexual harassment: last few years we have seen a significant increase in media reporting on gender-based violence including sexual harassment in various fields. Increased publicity on harassment in the workplace affects women in many ways. In some communities it may inhibit women's participation in different social work. Crimes against women: in particular brutal crimes such as rapes, dowry deaths, and honour killings. These trends are disturbing, and a possible decline in adherence to traditional institutions and socially prescribed gender roles that hold women back.

Supportive Steps for Gender Equality

Affirmative action: Affirmative Action is a policy designed to correct past practices of discrimination against women, minorities, the disabilities and other disadvantaged groups. In the simple words affirmative action for women is starts with our constitution, it is the creation of an environment where women can make independent decisions on their personal development as well as shine as equals in society. So more affirmative policies needed for gender equality development. Gender equality movement needs more affirmative actions and strict implementation of the schemes and policies for women empowerment. An Inter- ministerial committee will need to set up to periodically monitor the achievements and progress made under the action plan.

Women empowerment: To eliminate gender description and promote women empowerment, women's decision making capacity must therefore be enhanced within the household, the workplace and the political sphere. Increased political influence should have reverberations for women's equality in other two realms, which will in turn have implications for India's performance against all milestones for social progress.

Gender Mainstreaming: It is a process rather than a goal of creating knowledge and awareness of and responsibility for gender equality among all education professionals engaged in tertiary education. Mainstreaming gender essentially involves systematic evidence gathering and analysis of the differential participation and completion of education by women and men, analysis of why gender differences persist, and sensitisation of the stakeholders and decision-makers to existing inequalities. This implies that there is a continuum between evidence gathering and planning of specific interventions and programmes. Ensuring equal access and opportunities for men and women and creating a level playing field, involves engaging with the system and enabling the decision-makers to work towards greater gender equality.

Increasing Political Participation: Despite the reservation of seats at the local levels, there are no similar quotas in relation to elected seats at the national and state level. In practice, as well, the representation of women in the highest legislative organs has been nominal. Women's Reservation Bill (The Constitution 108th Amendment Bill), it proposes to amend the Constitution of India to reserve one third of all seats in the Lok Sabha, and in all state legislative assemblies for women. The Rajya Sabha passed the bill but the Lok Sabha has not yet voted on the bill. This will be helpful in increasing the political participation of women and Politicians should frame out policies for increasing social welfare development regarding this issue.

Awareness camps and training: for women awareness camp and training should be organized where they can become familiar with the framed schemes and policies and can take benefit of those schemes and policies. Proper awareness for laws means law should not be restricted to papers only but the implementation of law should be there so that every woman can be familiar with her rights. Significant steps should be taken to implement all the laws which are amended to facilitate detention, prevention and punishment of crimes against women. In context of above NGOs can also play an important role to eradicate Gender Inequality

Eradication of Poverty: Poverty is considered the greatest threat to peace in the world, and eradication of poverty should be a national goal as important as the eradication of illiteracy and inequality. Due to abject poverty, women are exploited as domestic helps and wives whose incomes are usurped by the man of the house. If poverty were not a concern, then the girl child will be able to follow her dreams without concerns of sexual exploitation, domestic abuse, Security threats, Sex selective abortion, Harassment, Trafficking, Superstition, Displacement, Migration, Deprivation, Vulnerability and Gender inequality.

Conclusion

In the light of the above discussion, we assume certain things, that women are physically weak, they are emotional, passive, submissive; therefore they are engaged in household works, child- rearing, nurturing etc. On the other hand, men are supposed to be active, dominant; therefore they are engaged in more active and physical work out of the house. On a closer and attentive look, we notice that none of the assigned characteristics are biological; all of them are socially and culturally constructed. So it can be concluded that a country like India has a long way to go before it can call itself a gender neutral country. However, no simple and direct solutions are available to minimise gender inequality as gaps are rooted in norms and in cultural and social practices and are further consolidated by poor infrastructure and service delivery. In practice, the problems are much more deeply rooted in society and laws cannot solve the problem. Gender inequality is more social rather than being legal. Society needs to change its perspective towards half of population. Possibly, the change will come only with awareness, Gender is not static or immutable, being socially constructed. Gender roles, rights, and expectations can change over time and across geographical space as societal needs, opportunities, and customs change. The government has taken some well- meaning steps to advance the positions of women. But to really overcome gender inequality, India will require changes to its society that are more than cosmetic.

Gender Equality: A Far-Fetched Dream in Democratic India