Review of Insecticide Resistance in Arthropod Pests: Molecular Mechanisms, Emerging Challenges and Sustainable Management

A major challenge in agricultural pest management is the widespread evolution of insecticide resistance in arthropods, threatening crop protection and vector control worldwide. Resistance develops through multiple mechanisms, including behavioral avoidance, enhanced metabolic detoxification, target-site mutations, reduced insecticide penetration and operational selection pressures. Key detoxification enzymes such as cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, glutathione S-transferases and carboxylesterases play central roles in resistance development, while mutations in acetylcholinesterase, sodium channels, GABA receptors and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors reduce insecticide sensitivity. Emerging concerns such as cross-resistance and climate-driven resistance evolution further complicate management. Current resistance-management strategies include insecticide rotation, synergistic mixtures, RNA interference, CRISPR/Cas-based approaches and integrated pest management practices. Understanding these molecular and ecological mechanisms is essential for developing sustainable and long-term insect resistance management strategies.