Advances in Experimental Pharmacology: From Animal Models to Artificial Intelligence and Organs-on-Chip

Experimental pharmacology plays a pivotal role in understanding drug actions, mechanisms, and safety profiles through controlled laboratory investigations. Traditionally, this field has relied on animal models, organ bath experiments, bioassays, and histological evaluations to study pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, dose-response relationships, and toxicity. While these methods have provided fundamental insights, they are often limited by ethical concerns, species variability, lower sensitivity, and restricted translational relevance. Recent advances have transformed experimental pharmacology, integrating cutting-edge approaches such as high-throughput screening (HTS), CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, proteomics, and artificial intelligence-driven predictive modeling. Moreover, organ-on-chip devices, 3D bioprinting, and organoid cultures now enable human-relevant models that better replicate physiological systems and reduce reliance on animal testing. In silico pharmacology, including molecular docking and dynamics simulations, further enhances the predictive power of drug discovery by elucidating drug-target interactions at the molecular level. Together, these developments have improved accuracy, efficiency, and ethical standards, thereby accelerating the translation of preclinical findings into safe and effective therapeutics. This review highlights the evolution of experimental pharmacology from traditional models to modern technological innovations, emphasizing their collective role in advancing drug discovery and development.