Non-Revenue Water in Developing Economies: Drivers, Social Impacts, and Strategic Responses

Non-Revenue Water (NRW) represents a persistent and multifaceted challenge to water utility management in developing economies. Encompassing both physical losses from leakages and apparent losses due to theft, metering inaccuracies, and unbilled authorized consumption, NRW negatively affects financial viability, service quality, and sustainable water resource management. This paper critically synthesizes contemporary literature and empirical findings to examine the key technical, institutional, financial, and socio-political drivers of NRW. It evaluates the role of public awareness, community participation, and governance reforms in shaping effective responses. The paper identifies promising interventions such-as pressure management, network zoning, stakeholder engagement models, and performance-based monitoring. Despite-significant technological advances, the persistent lack of institutional capacity and community engagement undermines-sustainable NRW reduction. The paper advocates for integrative strategies that bridge infrastructure, data analytics, social participation, and regulatory reforms. It concludes by outlining actionable pathways for policymakers and utility-managers, emphasizing the importance of context-specific, data-driven, and inclusive strategies for achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6.